Medical Terminology Daily (MTD) is a blog sponsored by Clinical Anatomy Associates, Inc. as a service to the medical community. We post anatomical, medical or surgical terms, their meaning and usage, as well as biographical notes on anatomists, surgeons, and researchers through the ages. Be warned that some of the images used depict human anatomical specimens.
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William S. Halsted, MD
(1852 – 1922)
American anatomist, teacher, and surgeon, William Stewart Halsted was born in New York City, USA to a wealthy family of English origin. His father was involved in charitable work and Governor and trustee to a city hospital. Not a brilliant student initially, Halsted took an undergraduate in Liberal Arts in Yale, CT., after which he entered the Medical College of Physicians at the Columbia College, where he excelled.
As a second-year medical student Halsted applied and obtained a position in surgery at a local hospital. In here he learned about Lister’s antiseptic technique and became an adamant proponent of it to reduce infection. In 1877 Halsted obtained his MD. After a short time as House Physician at the New York Hospital, Halsted traveled to Europe to further his education studying for two years at the Universities of Vienna, Leipzig, and W?rzburg.
Besides being at the forefront of surgical and antiseptic techniques (introducing the use of rubber gloves in surgery), Halsted was extremely concerned with the way medical students were taught in the US. He pioneered bedside clinical round discussions with the medical students after two years of basic sciences studies. Halsted developed the idea of a patient chart; he also developed the residency program for medical students in use today.
Halsted is probably the most influential researcher and surgeon at the turn of the century. He dedicated time to the study of intestinal anastomoses and the use of silk as a suture material. His experimental work in 1887 proved that the inclusion of the submucosa layer in an anastomosis was mandatory, as well that a single layered anastomosis was enough to attain closure. Perhaps Halsted’s most important contribution was the application and use of the scientific method to surgical questions. Halsted’s principles set the standards used today in surgical suturing and surgical stapling.
He also pioneered the development and surgical techniques for radical mastectomy as a treatment for breast cancer.
As a side effect of this studied in anesthesia and the use of cocaine for anesthesia, Halsted became addicted to this substance, a problem that followed him through the years. Without impairing his capacity as a researcher and a surgeon, Halsted eventually recovered. He died in Baltimore in 1922 as a complication to surgery.
Sources:
1. Dubay, A. D., & Franz, G. M. (2003). Acute Wound Healing: The Biology of Acute Wound Failure. Surg Clin NA, 83, 463-481.
2. Halsted, W. S. (1887). Circular Suture of the Intestine - An Experimental Study. Am J Med Sci, 436-461.
3. “William Stewart Halsted: his life and contributions to surgery” Osborne, P. Lancet Oncol 2007; 8: 256–65
4. “William Stewart Halsted: Surgical pioneer” Burress, P Endoc Today (2010), 8: (2) 22
5. “William Stewart Halsted (1852–1922) Neurological stamp” Haas, LF J Neurol Neurosurg Psych 2000;69:641
Original image courtesy of "Images from the History of Medicine" at www.nih.gov
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- Written by: Dr. O'Garcia
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The word [somatic] traces its origins to the Greek word [σώμα] (soma) meaning “body” and [σωμαkwς] (somatikos) meaning “of the body”, “bodily”, or “physically”. Combining the root term [-soma-] with the adjectival suffix [–tic], meaning “pertaining to”, gives the word [somatic], meaning “pertaining to the body”. Combining the root term [-psych] with the root term [-soma-]”,and adding the suffix [–tic], meaning “pertaining to”, gives us the medical word [psychosomatic] that means “pertaining to the mind and body”.
This term has become commonplace in scientific and medical literature, especially in cellular medicine describing stem cells, and at other times the word is appended with a prefix or suffix and used in another capacity. Often overlooked, because of the words it precedes (e.g., somatic stem cells), the word somatic is an important qualifier and adjective in defining a type of cell, or anything pertaining to the body for that matter. Thus, we examine the origins of this word, and why understanding it’s meaning can serve to as a critical adjective in cellular medicine.
Important to note, is that included in this word origins, is the designation that the root term [-soma-] is specific to the body and is distinct from the soul, mind, or spirit. Therein lies the rub, when talking about somatic stem cells, or somatic cells in general. It is imperative to recognize that when using the term somatic, to describe stem cells, scientists and clinicians are talking about cells derived from the body, otherwise considered adult tissue. The NIH gives the definition of a somatic stem cell as:
Somatic (adult) stem cells—A relatively rare undifferentiated cell found in many organs and differentiated tissues with a limited capacity for both self renewal (in the laboratory) and differentiation. Such cells vary in their differentiation capacity, but it is usually limited to cell types in the organ of origin. This is an active area of investigation.
By definition these cells are not germline cells, or embryonic cells, but cells residing in adult tissue and organs with varying capacities for differentiation such as the mesenchymal cells shown in the accompanying image. Thus, a somatic cell can describe anything from a stem cell residing within your kidneys or bone marrow. Research and therapies directed at and utilizing somatic stem cells, do not involve the destruction of an embryo. In fact, there is active research aimed at utilizing one’s own biopsied tissue to create personalized somatic cell therapies, which brings us full circle to the meaning of the word somatic: “pertaining to (and derived from) the body”.
Advances in science and medicine have led to the development of new understandings of the mechanisms that underlie disease, as well as new treatment strategies. With these advances come litanies of new terms that can often lead to confusion and in some cases, contention. One of these ever advancing areas is the rapidly changing field of stem cell science. As our understanding of “stem” cells changes almost daily, consequently, so must our vocabularies. Failure to do so can often lead to misunderstandings in science, medicine, politics, and even religion.
Article contributed by Dr. O’Garcia, a somatic stem cell researcher and medical writer.
Sources:
1. Online etymology dictionary, www.etymonline.com
2. MyEtymology.com www.MyEtymology.com
3. NIH Stem Cell Basics. http://stemcells.nih.gov/Pages/Default.aspx
Note: The links to Google Translate in these articles include an icon that will allow you to hear the Greek or Latin pronunciation of the word.
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The suffix [-schisis-] comes from the Greek word [σχίσις] and means "to tear" or "to separate". In Medicine today its meaning is that of "a cleft", a "split", or "a separation". The root term [gastr-] arises from the old Greek [gaster] meaning "belly"or "abdomen". In modern medical terminology it is used to mean "stomach", although its vernacular past still remains is some medical words.
In the case of [gastroschisis] the word refers to a congenital condition where the abdominal wall does not complete its normal closure and the baby is born with an incomplete abdominal wall allowing for the extrusion of abdominal viscera usually in a right paraumbilical position
Gastroschisis is rare with an incidence of 1 in every 10,000 births and is associated with younger mothers (under 20), smoking, and the use of cocaine.
Many cases of gastroschisis can be successfully treated with surgery.
Images courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
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Anterior view or the stomach
The root term [gastr-] arises from the old Greek [gaster] meaning "belly"or "abdomen". In modern medical terminology it is used to mean "stomach", although its vernacular past still remains is some medical words. Following are some used for this term:
- Gastritis: The suffix [-itis] means "infection" or "inflammation. Inflammation of the stomach
- Gastrotomy: The suffix [-(o)tomy] means "to cut" or "to open. Opening the stomach
- Gastrorrhaphy: The suffix [-(o)rrhaphy] means "to repair". Surgical repair of the stomach
- Gastroscope: The suffix [-(o)scope] means to an instrument used for viewing. To view the stomach
Here are a couple of examples of the root term [gastr-] used to mean "belly" or "abdomen":
- Gastroschisis: The suffix [-schisis] means "a cleft" or "a separation. An opening in the abdominal wall
- Gastrocnemius: The suffix [-(o)cnemius] is Greek and means "calf". The belly (like) muscles of the calf, the calf muscles
Source:
1. "Anatomy of the Human Body" Henry Gray 1918. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger
Original image courtesy of bartleby.com
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This article is part of the series "A Moment in History" where we honor those who have contributed to the growth of medical knowledge in the areas of anatomy, medicine, surgery, and medical research.
Antonio Maria Valsalva
Antonio Maria Valsalva (1666 – 1723). Italian physician, surgeon, pathologist and anatomist, Antonio Maria Pini was born in the city of Imola. His father Pompeo Pini, a well-to-do goldsmith, adopted the family name Valsalva based on the location of his grandfather’s castle. Valsalva was well educated by Jesuits in mathematics, natural sciences and humanities, and continued his studies in Bologna, where he was trained in anatomy by Marcello Malpighi (1628 – 1694).
In 1687, at the age of 21, Valsalva received his Doctorate in Medicine and Philosophy. He was very dedicated to the practice of medicine, research and anatomical studies. Because of his anatomical knowledge he routinely used cadaver dissection in his clinical practice, advancing his knowledge as a pathologist. In 1694 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna.
One of his areas of interest was the anatomy of the hearing system, and his only known publication in 1704 is “De Aure Humana Tractatus” (The Study of the Human Ear) , where he described the ear as composed of the three regions known to us today: internal, middle, and external.
He described a maneuver to inflate the middle ear to erase deafness and increase suppuration caused by middle ear congestion. This is known today as the Valsalva maneuver used in medical practice, but also in deep sea diving and by pilots to clear the middle ear and balance the air pressure in the middle ear with that of the external environment. Today the cardiophysiological bodily response to Valsalva’s maneuver has been studied in detail.
Valsalva is responsible for the eponym “Eustachian tube” that refers to the muscular tube communicating the superior aspect of the pharynx (rhinopharynx) with the middle ear. He did dissections to study in detail the aorta and aortic valve, describing what today are known as the “sinuses of Valsalva”, a pocket-like dilation of the aortic valve between the aortic valve wall and the valve cusps (leaflets). Each of the coronary arteries arises from a sinus of Valsalva. Similar sinuses are found in the pulmonary valve.
During his studies of the mentally ill, Valsalva was of the opinion that madness was an organic disease and therefore mentally ill patients deserved humanitarian treatment, which was not the standard during his times.
One of his best students and pupil was Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771) who, after the death of Valsalva in 1723, used some of his unpublished material to complement his own studies and publications.
Besides the Valsalva maneuver and the sinuses of Valsalva, there are other eponyms that honor this great anatomist:
• Valsalva Antrum or mastoid antrum is a cavity in the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
• Valsalva’s ligament attaches the pinna to the side of the head.
• Valsalva’s muscle: a band of vertical muscular fibers on the outer surface of the tragus of the ear, innervated by the temporal branch of the facial nerve
Sources:
1. “Seeing the Anatomy of Hearing: New Tools and Approaches Chart the Pathways Underlying How We Process and Integrate Sound” Laitman, JT The Anatomical Record (2006) 288A:323–324
2. “Antonio Maria Valsalva - Biographical Profile of a Pioneer on Otology” Meirelles, RC et al Int. Arch Otorhinolaryngol (2008)12: 2, 274-279
3. “The Valsalva manoeuvre and Antonio Valsalva (1666-1723)” J R Soc Med. (2006) 99(9): 448–451
4. “A short biography on the life of the dedicated anatomist –Valsalva” Kazi, R . J Postgrad Med (2004) 50:314-5
5. “Antonio Maria Valsalva (1666 – 1723)” Yale SH Clin Med Res (2005) 3(1): 35–38
Original image courtesy of the National Library of Medicine
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The root term -blephar-] arises from the Greek [βλέφαρο]meaning "eyelid".
It is used in many medical terms such as:
- Blepharoplasty: The suffix [-(o)plasty] means "reshaping". The surgical reshaping of an eyelid
- Blepharitis: The suffix [-itis] means "inflammation" or "infection". The inflammation of an eyelid
- Blepharoptosis: The suffix [-(o)ptosis] means "to sag" or "to "fall". A sagging or drooping eyelid
Note: The links to Google Translate in these articles include an icon that will allow you to hear the Greek or Latin pronunciation of the word.
Image courtesy of Kami Parsa, MD. Original image link courtesy of Wikipedia
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The word [cathedra] is Greek, from [καθέδρα] meaning "a high chair", a "teacher's chair" or a "throne". The term was later accepted into Latin with the same meaning.
In the early pre-Vesalian days of anatomy, the teachers would seat in a high-chair or cathedra from where they would read the anatomy from a book while a prosector or demonstrator would dissect, expose and point to the structures. The professor would not consider coming down from the cathedra to discuss the anatomy shown. This was changed by Andreas Vesalius who did the dissections and demonstrations himself, using the books as reference or to prove a point.
The term cathedra has been brought to our times, where we refer to the position at the head of a group as the "Chair": Chair of the Science Department, Chair of Surgery, etc.
The word cathedra was used to refer to a Bishop's chair in a church, so that large churches (which had a bishop) are now known as [cathedrals]. It is also said that someone of authority speaking in uncontestable terms is speaking ex-cathedra (from the chair)
In other languages the term "cathedratic" means a teacher in a high position, while in English the term refers to a Bishop speaking from the chair.
The image in this article is a close up of the title page of Mondino de Luzzi’s “Anothomia Corporis Humani” published in 1478. The person on the image could be Alessandra Giliani (1307 - 1326) who is at the foot of the cathedra following the directions of Mondino de Luzzi. Click on the image for a complete depiction of the title page.
Original image courtesy of NLM
